Pengaruh Warna Dalam Kehidupan

Sama ada kita sedar atau tidak, kadang kala WARNA mempengaruhi hidup kita. Ada yang kata kalau keletihan, cuba lihat warna hijau seperti lihat daun-daun atau pemandangan yang kehijauan. Sejauhmana berkesannya terapi ini, ianya bergantung kepada interpretasi keberkesanannya terhadapa individu itu sendiri. Apa pun, saya ingin berkongsi maklumat sedikit sebanyak berkenaan kelebihan warna-warna di dalam kehidupan kita :

MENGHILANGKAN MASALAH SAKIT KEPALA

Kajian mendapati bahawa warna merah dapat membantu untuk mengurangkan rasa sakit kepala. Oleh itu jika anda mengalaminya, letakkan tuala lembab berwarna merah diatas mata anda. Ia mampu meningkatkan peredaran dan melonjakkan adrenalin.

MENGURANGKAN TEKANAN DITEMPAT KERJA

Anda rasa tertekan? Cuba fokuskan mata anda kepada sesuatu yang berwarna biru. Ia berupaya meransangkan suasana tenang dan ianya dapat mengurangkan tekanan darah.
Cuba ubah screen saver komputer anda kepada warna-warna yang dapat membuatkan anda merasa tenang dan mengurangkan rasa tegang.

MENGELAKKAN INSOMNIA

Jika anda mengalami masalah sukar untuk tidur yang selesa diwaktu malam, apa kata anda mencuba petua ini. Hiasi bilik tidur anda dengan warna merah jambu. Kajian mendapati bahawa warna ini mampu mewujudkan suasana santai dan selesa. Suasana yang romantik...

Apabila anda merasa murung atau cuba untuk mengembalikan tenaga anda, cuba sesuatu yg berwarna jingga. Insyaallah, pasti mood anda akan berubah.

LENYAPKAN KELETIHAN

Terdapat pendapat yang mengatakan bahawa warna hijau mempunyai kesan positif dalam sistem imunisasi selain dapat menggalakkan suasana harmoni dalam badan.

Last but not least, saya ada terima kad aura warna yang menyatakan carta warna harian mengikut hari. Mungkin anda ingin mencubanya :)

HARI      WARNA

Isnin        - Putih : Bermaksud kesucian rohani/ Semangat

Selasa     - Merah jambu/ ungu : Bermaksud kasih sayang/ Tumpuan

Rabu       - Biru : Bermaksud Perhubungan/ Komunikasi

Khamis   - Kuning/ Oren : Bermaksud Pemikiran / Keceriaan

Jumaat    - Hijau : Bermaksud Kehidupan/ Kedamaian

Sabtu      - Merah : Bermaksud Keberanian/ Tuah/ Kemewahan

Ahad      - Hitam : Gabungan / Istirehat

INDUSTRIAL RELATIONS

1. INTRODUCTION


1.1 Definition


‘Industrial relations’ as quoted by Dunston Ayadurai in Industrial Relations in Malaysia : Law and Practice is defined as the relations created by employment between the parties who are involved in employment that are the employers, employees and their trade unions. Industrial relations includes totality of relationships and interactions between employers and employees. It covers all aspect of employment relationship including human resource management, employee relations and union-management relations.


1.2 Origins


The term "industrial relations" came into common usage in the 1910s, particularly in 1912 upon the appointment by President William Taft of an investigative committee titled the Commission on Industrial Relations which was assigned to investigate the causes of widespread, often violent labor conflict and make recommendations regarding methods to promote greater cooperation and harmony among employers and employees. It eventually gained greater saliency in the public mind due to the wave of strikes, labor unrest, and agitation for "industrial democracy" that accompanied the economic and political disturbances associated with World War I.


By beginning of the 1920s universities began to establish industrial relations centers and programs which conduct researches and train their students in employer-employee relations. Meanwhile at the same time, business firms established the first "industrial relations" or "personnel" departments to formalize and professionalize the management of labor and it began to expand until today.




2. EMPLOYMENT LAW IN MALAYSIA


Everyday in our life, we can see rules and regulations around us. When we drive on the road, there are rules to be followed, when we want to cook, there are guidelines to be referred and when we go to work, there are laws stated in the office that we must not ignore. The same case refers to our employment condition, there are laws written for the benefit of the parties involved.



Employment law governs the relationship between an employer and an employee which its main aim is to safeguard the interest of the employer and society in general and an employee/ workman in particular. Labor law contains provisions based on human rights, the rights which are necessary for protecting the dignity of an individual and creating conditions in which human personality can be developed to the fullest extent. In order to ensure that all the workers are ensured at least with basic human rights which are necessary for protecting human dignity, the State has intervened through labor laws. They are enacted with a view of protecting workmen against victimization and exploitation by the employer and also to prevent unrest. It provides for the investigation and settlement of industrial disputes, ignoring all the legal technicalities. It also provides for effective negotiations and conciliation.




In Malaysia, there are number of Acts practiced under employment-related legislation, which are the Employment Act 1955, Industrial Relations Act 1967, Trade Union Act 1959, Employees Provident Fund Act 1991, Employees’ Social Security Act 1969, Workmen’s Compensation Act 1952, Factories and Machinery Act 1967, Occupational Safety and Health Act 1994, Immigration Act 1959/1963 and etc. For the purpose of this assignment, two popular Acts are highlighted, namely the Employment Act 1956 and Industrial Relations Act 1967.




2.1 Employment Act 1955 (EA)


The Employment Act 1955, as well as the Sabah and Sarawak Labour Ordinance has written down the provisions to protect workers from exploitation and provide all workers covered by the respective Acts with minimum benefits, i.e., employees who earn not more than RM1,500 per month (Employment Act) or RM2,500 per month (in Sabah and Sarawak Labour Ordinance); those who carry out manual labour or who supervise such workers or are employed to drive or maintain vehicles.


The Employment Act sees the employee-employer relations as being contractual in nature and it requires a particular contract to exist, that is the ‘contract of service’. Some terms and conditions legislated in the Act are as follows :

(a) Hours of work, including hours of overtime allowed;


(b) Wages (the truck system and not the wage rate);


(c) The right for a weekly rest day;


(d) Public holidays;


(e) Number of annual leave, sick leave and maternity leave given; and


(f) Termination, maternity and layoff benefits..






2.2 Industrial Relations Act 1967 (IRA)


The Industrial Relations Act regulate the relations between the employers and employees and their unions as well as laying down rules to help prevent and settle disputes between the two parties which leads to a peaceful industrial relations as far as possible. The Act embodies 4 important principles, which are as follows:


(a) The principle of trade unionism


(b) The principal of recognition of a union


(c) The principle of collective bargaining leading to a collective agreement


(d) The principle of resolving trade disputes.



The IRA also specifies the legally acceptable ways to resolve an employer-union differences or disputes (such as negotiation, conciliation, arbitration and industrial action).



3. EMPLOYMENT RELATIONSHIP


The nature of employer and employee relationship is connected by a vital link called Employment. If there is no Employment, there shall be no Employer or Employee.


3.1 Who is an employee?


The definition of employee is clearly stated in the First Schedule (Section 2(1)) of the Employment Act 1955

FIRST SCHEDULE


(Section 2(1)) (Sub. Act A 497)


Employee Provision of the Act not applicable


(1) Any person, irrespective of his occupation, who has entered into a contract of service with an employer under which such person’s wages do not exceed RM One Thousand and Five Hundred per month.


(Am. Act 716)


(2) Any person who, irrespective of the amount of wages he earns in a month, has entered into a contract of service with an employer in pursuance of which –


(a) He is engaged in manual labour including such labour as an artisan or apprentice : Provided that where a person is employed by one employer partly in manual labour and partly in some other capacity such person shall not be deemed to be performing manual labour unless the time during which he is required to perform manual labour in any one wage period exceeds one-half of the total time during which he is required to work in such wage period;


(b) He is engaged in the operation or maintenance of any mechanically propelled vehicle operated for the transport of passengers or goods or for reward or for commercial purposes;


(c) He supervises or oversees other employees engaged in manual labour employed by the same employer in and throughout the performance of their work;


(d) He is engaged in any capacity in any vessel registered in Malaysia and who –


(i) is not an officer certified under the Merchant Shipping Acts of the United Kingdom as amended from time to time;


(ii) is not the holder of a local certificate as defined in Part VII of the Merchant Shipping Ordinance, 1952; or


(iii) has not entered into an agreement under Part III of the Merchant Shipping Ordinance, 1952; or


(e) he is engaged as a domestic servant



Part XII


Sections 12,14,16,22,61 and 64 and Parts IX, XII and XIIA.


(3) For the purpose of this Schedule “wages” is the one that is defined in Section 2, but shall not include any payment by way of commission, subsistence allowance and overtime payment.




In this Act ‘employee’ means an individual who has entered into or works under (or, where the employment has ceased, worked under) a contract of employment


(1) In this Act ‘contract of employment’ means a contract of service or apprenticeship, whether express or implied, and (if it is express) whether it is oral or in writing.


Comment :


(1) Note that statutory purposes a contract of apprenticeship is to be treated as a contract of employment. This means, for example, that an apprentice who is not kept on at the end of his training period has the right to claim redundancy or unfair dismissal (though see North East Coast Shiprepairs Ltd v Secretary of State (1978). In Flett v Matheson (2006) the Court of Appeal extended the traditional concept of apprenticeship to cover a typical tripartite modern apprenticeship programme where the training was mainly provided at college and the employer was essentially providing work experience. The test was how far the arrangement displayed the features classically associated with an apprenticeship contract: that the main aim was to learn a skill; a lengthy period of training was involved, and the employer’s power to dismiss was restricted.


Apart from clarifying the status of apprentices, the statutory definitions of ‘employee’ and ‘contract of employment’ are not very helpful, as they give no indication of how a contract of service is to be identified. The answer must be found at common law, and various factors to be taken into account can be identified from the extracts which follow.


4. CONTRACT OF SERVICE AND CONTRACT FOR SERVICE


The employment law which deals with the contract of service touches almost everyone than any other branch of law. A contract of service is an agreement whereby one person agrees to employ another as an employee and the other agrees to serve his employer as an employee (and includes an apprenticeship contract). The Employment Act 1955 deals with the contract of employment. But it is not applicable to every employee or to every employer. It is applicable to those employers or employees whi fall within the definitions of the Employment Act 1955. Under this Act, an employer is any person whi enters into a contract of service to employ any other person as an employee (includes the agent, manager or factor of such person). An employee is any person who enters into contract of service with an employer and whose wages ‘do not exceed RM1500 a month’. However, there are some exceptions where a person falls within the definition of an employee, even though his wages exceed the above limit. For example annual labor, persons engaged in the operation or maintenance of any mechanically propelled vehicle and the persons specified in the 1st schedule of the Act :


1. Any person, irrespective of his occupation, who has entered into a contract of service, with an employer under which such person’s wages do not exceed RM1500 a month’.


2. Any person who, irrespective of the amount of wages he earns in a month, has entered into a contract of service with an employer in pursuance of which :


He is engaged in manual labour including such as an artisan or apprentice etc....


Contract of service and contract for service


Section 2 of EA 1955 defines ‘contract of service’ as ‘any agreement, whether oral or in writing and whether express or implied, whereby one person agrees to employ another as an employee and that other person agrees to serve his employer as an employee and includes an apprenticeship. This is distinguished from a contract where the employer gets the work done by an independent, or self employed, contractor. For example, an electrician called to mend a faulty circuit in a private house would most likely be an independent contractor, while an electrician hired and stationed in a factory to look after its electrical components is an employee of the factory.




5. THE IMPORTANCE TO DIFFERENTIATE BETWEEN CONTRACT OF SERVICE AND CONTRACT FOR SERVICE


Reasons for stressing the importance of the distinction between a contract of service and contract for service :


1. Compulsory statutory contributions and payments like the provident fund, social security, workmen’s compensation and pension schemes are payable by employers if the workers are employed.


2. In tort, an employer will not normally be vicariously liable for the tortuous acts committed by independent contractors, whereas the employer would be liable for torts committed by his employees in the course of their employment which resulted in injuries or damages to third parties.


3. Employer owes a duty at common law to his employees to take reasonable care for their safety, whereas these duties do not normally apply with respect to independent contractors.


4. In case of a judgement made against an employee, an attachment of earnings can be ordered, where the Court can compel the employer to deduct the employee’s salary and wages for certain purpose.


5. Most important of all, the employee who falls within the definition of an ‘employee’ under the employment or industrial statutes would be entitled to protections under those statutes which as minimum standard of employment protections, minimum requirement of dismissal and termination notices and protections against unfair dismissal and the right to redundancy payments. These protections do not apply to a person who is working under a contract for service.




6. TEST FOR DETERMINING CONTRACT OF SERVICE AND CONTRACT FOR SERVICE


The Court have applied several test for determining whether an employee is working under a contract of service or as an independent contractor. The tests are the control test, organizational or integration test, multiple, mixed or economic reality test and other elements such as intention and objective of the contractual relationship.


Control test case :


The essence of the control test is that an employee works under the control of another, not only as to what he must do but also how and when he must do it. The test relies on the ability of the employer to exercise control over the employee in relation to the work done.


As a whole, the control test is inconclusive as far as professionals are concerned. It is difficult to see how employers can control the work of lawyers, engineers, architects, doctors and computer analysts as they have, to an extent, some independence in the course of their employment.


Mat Jusoh bin Daud v. Syarikat Jaya Seberang Takir Sdn. Bhd., that :


The notion of control as a test to determine the existence of relationship of master and servant has lost a good deal of its importance because under modern conditions no control as to how work is to be done can be directed to such professionally trained employees as engineers, architects, lawyers, managers, doctors and many others…This notion is also becoming unrealistic because the majority of employers today are corporate entities who have to act through human agencies. Thus the absence of control is no longer conclusive as to the existence or otherwise of the relationship of master and servant.


In the case of Bata Shoe Company (Malaya) Ltd. V. Employee Provident Fund Board, the question was whether salesmen employed by shop managers were employees of Bata Shoe Company. Applying the control test, the Court concluded that the Company did not have sufficient control over the salesmen, and for that reason they were not employees of the Company.






Organizational or integration test :


This test takes into account the degree of integration into the organization, whether it be a hospital, a factory,a university or a shop. The test would work if the extent to which a workman is integrated is not ambiguous. Nonetheless, it Is a superficial approach because the status of a workman is viewed from an outset and the detailed terms and conditions of the relationship is not properly assessed.



In Employee Provident Fund Board v. M S Ally & Co. Ltd., the organizational test was applied apart from the control test. The case was about the status of working assistants employed by the defendants under the EPF Ordinance. The Federal Court decided that they were employees and Wan Sulaiman FJ observed that :


…the correct conclusion to be drawn is that there is a sufficiency of control or if one is to apply the test employed by Denning LJ in Bank Voor Handel En Scheepvaart NV v. Slatford & Anor. and Stevenson Jordan & Harrison Ltd. v. MacDonald. Working assistants are ‘part and parcel’ of the organizations; that they are employed as part of the business and their work is done as integral part of and not as an accessory to the business.






Mixed or multiple test


7. CONCLUSION


8. REFERENCES


Cases and Materials on Employment Law : Gwyneth Pitt, Pearson Longman Education, 3rd Edition 2008


Employment Law For Human Resource Practice : David J. Walsh, Thomson South-Western West 2004


Employment Law in Malaysia , Prof. Altaf Ahmad Mir & Dr. Nik Ahmad Kamal, International Law Book Services 2006


A Handbook of Malaysian Labour Laws , M.N. D’Cruz, Leeds Publication, 7th Edition, 2008

Gender and Negotiation - Impact on Negotiation

1. INTRODUCTION



Every day we do negotiation. Think back through yesterday’s event. Maybe you had to work out with your spouse about whose going to send the children to school or in the Budget Meeting, you had to negotiate with the Top Management who decided to review your proposal to purchase a heavy duty Photostat machine or you had to negotiate the best price with the seller on the Baju Kurung you wanted to buy at the Pasar Ramadhan. Each of these daily events created potential conflict and they were resolved through negotiation.


What is negotiation?. Negotiation is defined as ‘a process in which two or more parties exchange goods or services and attempt to agree on the exchange rate for them. The negotiation process involves few steps beginning with the preparation and planning, definition of ground rules, clarification and justification, bargaining and problem solving and the final step is closure and implementation’ (Robbins & Judge,2009,p.529). Do men and women negotiate differently? Is the bargaining table a male domain? Do men and women have different bargaining styles? Do their abilities differ from each other that they create and claim their value? Does gender pay gap exist? These are timeless questions but will be answered after you have finished reading this project paper.



2. LITERATURE REVIEW


My review on gender and negotiation literature was based on a search of journals in the Internet. I found a number of journal through the Ebscohost and Proquest website, using search terms related to gender and negotiation (i.e.,[gender OR male OR female] AND [‘negotiate’ OR ‘negotiation’ OR ‘negotiator’]). From this initial search, I have removed articles on politics, health (HIV, sexual behavior), peace negotiation and other articles which are not relevant to gender or negotiation. I supplemented this literature with additional information abstracted from Organizational Behavior books.


The literature I reviewed about gender and negotiations will discuss on the male and female behavior, the pattern of negotiation of each gender and their difference. To make it clear, I have arranged the review based on each individual articles point of view for better understanding.

2.1 Gender bias in automotive negotiations by Stewart L. Tubbs, Erin Ottenbreit and Sean Falk


Tubbs, Ottenbreit et al. (2008) make an interesting link between negotiation and gender bias in their article “Gender Bias in Automotive Negotiations”. The article relates the history of negotiation skills back to the early years being a child. During childhood play is where most of our conversation style is learned. As a child individual tend to associate with peers of the same gender and create a rapport and negotiation status within that group. This supports the notion that men and women have developed broadly different styles of communication at a very young age.


The article quoted that the major distinction between the way boys and girls communicate is that girls typically use the language to negotiate closeness in order to gain a sense of intimacy as a foundation of friendship. Alternately, boys generally use language to negotiate their status within the group. The premise that males use power to negotiate status verse a woman’s desire to establish rapport through cooperation has carried out through adulthood at home, work, meetings, social occasions and in personal contacts. This means men and women tend to have different ways of saying what they mean.


In negotiation, males are typically characterized as being assertive, independent and rational and in contrast, women are generally regarded as emotional, passive and hole a high regard for others. Because many stereotypical traits are valued at the bargaining table, women are placed at a disadvantage during negotiations. A study done by Walter, Stuhlmacher and Meyer (1998) (as cited in Tubbs, Ottenbreit et al.,2008), found that men tend to negotiate better outcomes than women. Whether the negotiating parties endorse these stereotypes or not, simply being aware that this connection exists can have an influence on bargaining behavior.


The article also shared a theory developed by Riley (2001) where it stated that the effects of gender on negotiation depend systematically on two situational factors: structural ambiguity and gender triggers. Riley refers to structural ambiguity as the clarity of information about the bargaining range and appropriate standards for agreement. As ambiguity increase, parties have to rely more on subjective assessments of the negotiating situation, which in turn creates a greater potential for gender to influence bargaining expectations and performances. Gender triggers can be defined as the situational factors that make gender salient and relevant to negotiator’s behaviors and performance expectations. Gender triggers act as cues for men and women to interpret and to enact negotiation distinct gender-consistent ways. Riley’s research found that when structural ambiguity was high, male negotiators had more optimistic expectations and negotiated higher payoffs than females in mixed-gender pairs. However, she discovered that when ambiguity was low, gender differences were not apparent.




2.2 Gender differences in virtual negotiation by Alice F. Stuhlmacher, Maryalice Citera and Toni Willis


Stuhlmacher et al (2007) “Gender Differences in Virtual Negotiation:Theory and Research” offers and insightful information on virtual communication and negotiation by focusing on gender effects. Stuhlmacher et al (2007) stated virtual communication uses communication modes other than face-to-face (FTF) such as telephone, email or written notes. The process of virtual negotiation becomes more complex when it involved gender roles. In most societies, men and women have different social roles and are expected to have the skills to fulfill these roles. Relevant to negotiation are societal expectations for women to communicate in a friendly, warm, supportive and selfless manner (Eagly and Carli, as cited in Stuhlmacher et al. 2007). Women are expected to have and exhibit more communal characteristics than men. In contrast, men are expected to interact with more assertiveness, confidence, self-promotion, dominance and one-up-manship than women.


The article sum up with a conclusion that in most virtual negotiations, the negotiation task remains a masculine social role with its focus on competition, winning and limited personal contact. Virtual negotiation, however, makes the gender of the negotiator less salient (compared to FTF negotiation) because there are fewer status and social cues.


Stuhlmacher et al (2007) explained that gender role salience has different implications for men than women negotiators. Instead of focusing on the status of the other individual, women in virtual negotiation may be more likely to concentrate on the content of the interaction (Nowak; Ridgeway, as cited in Stuhlmacher,2007). Recall also that psychological distance theory predicts that virtual negotiations lessen the social influence of the other communicator (Latane; Wellens, as cited in Stuhlmacher,2007). The reduced social cues in virtual negotiation may equalize social interaction, making women’s behavior less consistent with a female gender role and more consistent with a negotiation role.


The article predicted that in virtual negotiations, women negotiators will be less guided by female gender roles and there will be less stereotypical afilliative behaviors than in a FTF negotiation which resulted to 3 findings as follows:


Finding 1 Female negotiators displays more hostile behaviors in virtual negotiation compared to FTF negotiations


Finding 2 No difference existed in displays of hostile behavior for male negotiators between virtual and FTF negotiations because being a negotiator is congruent with a masculine role.


Finding 3 Female negotiators have better objective outcomes, or profit, in virtual compared to FTF negotiations.



2.3 Gender Distinctions and Empathy in Negotiation by Linda L. Barkacs and Stephen Standifird


The article stated that there is little doubt that males have an advantage as the “dominant cultural stereotype” in our society (Kolb & Coolidge; Kolb & Williams, as cited in Barkacs, et al.,2008). One prominent theory on the differences between male and female negotiators is that females are more aware of the relationship between negotiators, whereas males are more task-specific (Lewicki & Sander, as cited in Barkacs et al.,2008).


The article explained that in studies on nonverbal communication, women are seen as more approachable and more focused on the other person during interactions. Men are viewed as more composed, therefore less expressive. A partial explanation of the behavior of women is that they fear fewer rewards and greater costs if they fail to expressive positive emotion. In addition, non verbal expressiveness is linked with social power. Those with lower social status and power are expected to engage in great expressivity.


Women traditionally held lower social status than men and these expectations may affect how men and women deal with issues during negotiation (Thompson & Kleiner, as cited in Barkacs et al., 2008).


The article reported, in 2003, Deborah M. Kolb and Judith Williams (as cited in Barkacs et al., 2008) published their theories on the hidden context within every negotiation (Kolb & Williams, 2003). This hidden context was dubbed the “shadow negotiation”. The theory posits that while people negotiate over issues, they also negotiate how they will relate to one another. During the process of trying to persuade the other party, each negotiator makes assumptions about the other negotiator’s wants, weakness and likely behavior. Kolb and Williams (as cited in Barkacs et al., 2008) conclude that the shadow negotiation is where bargainers decide how cooperative they will be in reaching a mutual solution.


Relationships play a larger role in women’s lives than in men’s, therefore it makes sense that women’s attitudes toward negotiation are more focused on relationships. When engaged in integrative (i.e., “win-win”) negotiations, women may actually have an advantage over men, as more cooperative behavior is required. Distributive (i.e. “win-lose”) negotiations requires competitive behavior, which is typically associated with a masculine negotiation style (Carrell & Heavrin, as cited in Barkacs et al., 2008).




2.4 Negotiator style and influence in multi-party negotiations: exploring the role of gender by Leonard Karakowsky and Diane L. Miller


The article mentioned that the past research has attempted to investigate the potential sources of the gender differences in negotiation styles and has identified a number of factors, including: gender differences in self-confidence (Ragins and Sundstrom, as cited in Karakowsky and Miller, 2006); interpersonal-orientation (Rubin and Brown, as cited in Karakowsky and Miller, 2006); preference for harmony (Kolb and Coolidge, as cited in Karakowsky and Miller, 2006); self perceptions of assertiveness (Watson and Kasten, as cited in Karakowsky and Miller, 2006); and risk aversion (Powell and Ansic, as cited in Karakowsky and Miller, 2006).


Masculine Tendencies Feminine Tendencies


Visualize one-shot deal Visualize long-term relationship


Seek a sports-type victory Seek mutual gain


Emphasize rules-of-the-game and power positions Emphasize fairness


Explain logic of their position Inquire about others’ needs


Speak in a dominating manner Use powerless speech


Be intransigent about their position Be willing to compromise


Interrupt and deceive the other party Avoid tactics that might harm long-term relationship


Figure 1 : Male and female negotiation styles: some proposed differences


Source : Based on Lewicki et al. (1993)

The article later explained that the social role theory asserts that men and women are socialized in different ways which consequently encourage different types of behavior in groups –women tend toward a higher level of socio-emotional behavior (collectivist), while men are more task-oriented (agentic). This is in line with Kolb’s (as cited in Karakowsky and Miller, 2006) view of women as possessing a greater preference for maintaining harmony in a negotiation which can dominate other interests. Moreover, Watson and Kasten (as cited in Karakowsky and Miller, 2006) found that female negotiating pairs avoided discussing the main point of the conflict, yet they indicated that the negotiation was effective in that harmony was preserved.




The article summarized the report with 2 findings, such as follows:


Finding 1 In a mixed-gender multi-party negotiation, males will exert greater influence compared to females when the negotiation clearly involves the potential for a distributive (win-lose) outcome (a stereotypical male- oriented negotiation task).


Finding 2 In a mixed-gender multi-party negotiation, females will exert greater influence compared to males when the negotiation clearly involves the potential for an integrative (win-win) outcome (a stereotypical female- oriented negotiation task).




3. CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK


I am trying to relate the gender negotiation with the compensation set by an organization. What is compensation? Something, such as money, given or received as payment for a service or job done. There is a relationship between how the organization perceived the gender effects when it comes to salary setting and found solutions to ensure fairness in giving pay to employees.


Figure 2 shows the elements of total compensation in the HRM system.


Figure 2 The elements of Total Compensation within integrated HRM System


The words written in red in Figure 2 shows where the negotiation exist and what are the actions taken by HR practitioner to reduce the impact of gender bias. Jackson, S.E., et all (2009) quoted, pay fairness refers to what people believe they deserve to be paid in relation to what others deserve to be paid. People tend to determine the fairness of their pay by comparing what they give to and get out of the organization compared to others. If they regard this comparison as fair or equitable, they’re likely to be satisfied. If they see it as unfair, they’re likely to be dissatisfied. Thus, pay fairness is strongly related to pay satisfaction, which is the amount of positive or negative feelings employees have toward their pay. Fairness is the key element in reducing the gap between pay negotiation made by male and female employee.


Equal Pay Act also has been imposed where Title VII of the Civil Rights Act, with which the following are identified as the protected groups :women, African Americans, Hispanics, Native Americans, Asian Americans and Pacific Islander American, prohibits pay discrimination in any form. Prior to the passage of the Civil Rights Act in 1964, gender-based discrimination was addressed by the Equal Pay Act of 1963, which amended the Fair Labor Standards Act.


The Equal Pay Act prohibits an employer from discriminating ‘between employees on the basis of sex by paying wages to employees…at a rate less than the rate at which he pays wages to employees of the opposite sex…for equal work on jobs the performance of which requires equal skill, effort and responsibility, and which are performed under similar working conditions.”. For monitoring purposes, employers submit compensation data when they file EEO-I reports. An EEO-I (Equal Employment Opportunity) report gives an accounting of the composition of the workforce using 4 factors: job family (9 categories), sex (2 categories), race/ethnicity (8 categories) and employment status (5 categories).Besides filing the pay information with the EEOC (Equal Employment Opportunity Commission), employers should conduct comprehensive audits of all aspects of their compensation practices to identify and correct any pay inequity problems. Such audits typically scrutinize each pay element for possible evidence of pay inequities that are based on gender and etc. When a pay equity audit uncovers apparently discriminatory pay practices, a plan should be developed to correct the problems. The cost of pay equity adjustments usually has been between 2 and 5% of payroll. Many private sector businesses incorporate pay equity analysis in their annual budget proposal.


As you can see in Figure 2, the process is continuous where the total compensation is set based on internal and external contributing factors. It will always be analyzed again and again when there are changes in the internal and external environment, thus making it the best formula for total compensation within the HR system.


In the next chapter in Findings, I shall relate the negotiation issue of pay gap between the male and female employee and look at present scenario, whether there is still pay gap based on articles I have read.



4. FINDINGS


DeCenzo and Robbins (2007, p.78) quoted in past decades, many jobs were formally viewed as being male- or female-oriented. For example, positions such as librarians, nurse and elementary schoolteacher were considered typical jobs for women; by contrast, police officers, truck drivers and top management positions were regarded as the domain of men. Historically, this attitude resulted in the traditional female-oriented jobs paying significantly less than the male-oriented positions. This differentiation led to concerns over gender-based pay systems, commonly referred to as the comparable worth issue. For instance, a nurse may be judged to have a comparable job to that of a police officer. Both must be trained, both are licensed to practice, both work under stressful conditions and both must exhibit high levels of effort. But they are not typically paid the same; male-dominated jobs have traditionally been paid more than female-oriented jobs. Under comparable worth, estimates of the importance of each job are used in determining and equating pay structures.


The gender pay gap refers to the notion that men on average earn more than women. Blau and Kahn (2000) noted that the weekly earnings ratio of full- time female workers to male workers was constant at about 60 percent from the late 1950's to 1980. This gender pay ratio began to rise in the early 1980's and by 1995 it had climbed to about 75 percent. However, the ratio's upward progression appears to have stalled around 1995, and significant gains have not occurred since that time (Blau and Kahn, 2000). The gender pay gap and gender pay ratio typically relate to the overall population of female and male workers and not to workers in specific occupations.


It is clear that research on gender in job negotiation speaks directly to the unexplained gender gap in earnings by illuminating psychological effects of gender on compensation negotiations. It does offer some potential explanation for the asymmetric distribution of other types of potentially negotiable organizational resources and career opportunities such as trainings, budgets, developmental work experience and etc, which contributes to the gender gap in management and leadership positions.


Barkacs and Standifird (2008) reported that the research done over the years indicated that gender differences in negotiation outcomes is not necessarily based on differences in behavior, but rather how the same behavior of male and female negotiators is perceived differently. In the context of salary negotiations, some research indicates that males may receive a more positive outcome by reminding supervisors of previous favors and offering to make sacrifices. This same tactic, when used by female employees, has a negative effect (Lewicki & Sanders, as cited in Barkacs and Standifird, 2008).


In the article ‘Untapped Potential in the Study of Negotiation and Gender Inequality in Organizations’ by Hannah Riley Bowles and Kathleen L. McGinn, it stated that men outperformed women in terms of the economic payoffs from negotiation, but a number of studies revealed conditions under which women’s negotiation payoffs matched or exceeded men’s. These included situations in which negotiators were advocating for others as opposed to themselves (Bowles et al, as cited in Bowles and McGinn, 2008) or in which women were reacting against explicitly stated stereotypes favoring men in negotiation (Kray et al., as cited in Bowles and McGinn, 2008). Kray and Thompson (as cited in Bowles and McGinn, 2008) concluded that the negotiating table is male dominated- both in terms of the economic claims that men make relative to women and in terms of the stereotypically masculine social conception of the attributes of effective negotiators – but that negotiation outcomes are driven by situational factors rather than predetermined by stable, innate differences between the sexes.


Results in the article pertaining the gender differences in salaries secured at organizational entry showed mixed results but tend to suggest that male managers and professionals negotiate higher starting pay than their female peers. Bowles and McGinn (2008) found researchers attribute these gender differences to unequal rates in the propensity to negotiate initial offers as well as to differing effectiveness in bargaining for higher pay.


Babcock and Laschever, (as cited in Bowles and McGinn, 2008) found significant gender differences among graduating professional students in the propensity to negotiate but no gender difference in negotiation performance. Seven percent of women as compared with 57% of men negotiated for higher salaries and those who negotiated gained an average 7.4% over their starting offer. These findings of gender differences in the propensity to negotiate were replicated in another field study of MBA students’ job market experiences and in multiple laboratory experiments (Small et al., as cited in Bowles and McGinn, 2008).


The article later explained that there are numerous studies providing indirect support for the proposition that male managers and professional negotiate higher salaries at organizational entry than their female peers. Gerhart (1990) analyzed the current and starting salaries of 4,617 managers and professionals in a major industrial and consumer products company. Controllin for year of hire, work experience, education, tenure, performance and job title, he found that women’s relative salary disadvantage as compared to men at time of hire accounted for most of the gender difference in current salary. Based on a two-year longitudinal study of 610 managers and professionals working in Fortune 500 companies, Brett and Stroh (1997) demonstrated that men substantial compensation gains by transferring organizations, whereas an external labor market strategy had no significant benefits for women’s compensation.


Another evidence is shown by Barkacs and Standifird (2008),where a 1991 study of MBA graduates found that, while men and women were equally likely to negotiate, men received higher salaries for negotiating their salary than did females. The study was controlled for the effects of industry, college major, GPA and business experience. The differences in salary may have emerged from how negotiators define the bargaining zone (Lewicki & Sanders, as cited in Barkacs and Standifird, 2008). As discussed earlier, women may suffer from the ‘entitlement effect’ (the belief that they deserve to earn less). Moreover, a woman’s reference point is typically other women- women who traditionally earn less than men. The combination of lower expectations and misinformation about their worth may contribute greatly to women receiving less when negotiating salary. Men are expexted to be assertive, forceful and in charge in a negotiation whereas women are expected to behave in a more differential, agreeable manner.


It looks like the review are providing with conflicting results concerning the current status of the gender pay gap. Brewer (1998) noted that a survey of 4,585 numbers of the American Management Association revealed that the number of women in policy-making positions increased at more than twice the rate of men since 1990. However,the female managers’ salaries stilled lagged far behind their male counterparts, and the gap was even wider at senior levels of management.


Philpott (2002) noted that the gender pay gap for workers overall widened from 18.4 percent in 2001 to 18.8 percent in 2002. He noted that the gap widened in 2002 largely because male workers were given generous bonuses than were their female counterparts. Lips (2003) reported on a 2001 General Accounting Office (GAO) study focusing on managers’ salaries within a group of ten industries between 1995 and 2000. The GAO study, which controlled for education, age, marital status and race, found that women earned less than men in both 1995 and 2000. In seven of the ten industries studied, the gender pay gap actually increased between 1995 and 2000.Daily and Dalton (1999) reported on a Catalyst study of male and female executive officers of Fortune 500 companies and noted that the female officers earned only 68 percent of their male counterpart’s salaries. This pay differential existed even after controlling for size of company and years of service.



Despite the above studies reporting the existence of a signifianct gender pay gap at virtually all levels of employment, other studies suggest that the gap has narrowed substantially in recent years. For example, Weidenbaum (1999) states that the gap has almost disappeared, especially for males and females with equal education and levels of experience. As a case in point, he stated that women aged 27 to 33 with no children earn 98 percent of the wages of childless men in the same age category.



The article later explained that the more recent research where the situation is unambiguous, there is little or no pay gap between men and women (Legace, as cited in Barkacs and Standifird, 2008). This is true in industries where salaries are normative such as the banking, consulting and high technology. Even in such industries, however, women and men negotiate different packages. In a high ambiguity industries, such as telecommunications, real estate, health services and media male MBAs negotiated salaries that were on average $10,000 higher than salaries negotiated by female MBAs. Assuming that the lower paid MBAs continue working in high-ambiguity industries for the next 35 years and receive a three percentage increase each year, the wage gap is more than $600,000. Invested at 5% annual interest, the gap grows to $1.5 million (Pradel, Bowles and McGinn, as cited in Barkacs and Standifird, 2008).



The current study examines the gender pay gap issue, in relation to one very important subset of the U.S. workforce (i.e., executive officers for Fortune 100 companies). Being a top executive in a Fortune 100 company represents the zenith in terms of workplace accomplishments. If women have penetrated this elite group of corporate management in significant numbers, then a strong argument could be made that the glass ceiling has been shattered. Similarly, the size of the gender pay gap within this group would send an important message to the rest of Corporate America. A significant gender pay gap would suggest that women, even though they hold key positions within an organization, are not valued by the organization as highly as their male counterparts. A relatively small or nonexistent gender pay gap within this group would suggest that women executives are viewed on an equal footing with their male counterparts in terms of their value to the company.



Looking at the current situation regarding the gender pay gap, latest study have shown that it is nonexistent in the top levels of management at large corporation but it does not really imply that gender bias in the workplace has been eliminated. It may be lessening, at least, in the executive suites of large companies as men and women in these top positions appear to be rewarded equally. This indirectly suggest that a mindset by top management and outside boards that equal work deserves equal recognition and pay, regardless of gender.



Bowles and McGinn (2008) suggested two general mechanisms for how organizational leaders might minimize the potential for negotiation dynamics to contribute to gender inequities within their organizations. First, enhancing the transparency with regard to what can be negotiated is likely to reduce gender differences. Gender differences in negotiation performance tend to be greater the more ambiguity there is about the appropriate standards for agreement. Second, organizational leaders can make themselves more aware of how traditional norms and practices trigger gendered expectations and behavior in the negotiation of organizational resources and opportunities. Ambigutiy and gender triggers work in interaction with one another, with the highest likelihood of the effect occurring when the standards for agreement are ambiguous and the environment is rife with gendered cues that negotiators use- consciously or unconsciously- to inform their negotiation expectations. Hopefully, this mindset will trickle down and eventually eliminate all vestiges of gender bias in the workplace.



5. CONCLUSION


Whether you are a male of a female, a good strategy is to determine you and your other side’s BATNA which stands for Best Alternative to a Negotiated Agreement. Your BATNA determines the lowest value that is acceptable to you in a negotiated agreement. But in the case of compensation, in relation to gender negotiation, pay gap should not exist.



Literature on gender in negotiation have started with a premise of a stable personality-based gender differences in negotiation behavior. The later research have rejected the hypotheses of stable sex-based differences in negotiation behavior by providing trace of evidence that gender effects in negotiation are systematically contingent on situational factors. The broader theoretical development of the study of gender in negotiation suggests that these situational moderators of gender effects in negotiation are routed in the larger structure of gender relations in organizations and society. To begin correcting this invisible barrier, there are laws imposed and fairness is taken seriously.



In summary quoted by Bowles and McGinn (2008), the effects of gender on job negotiations are reflective of men’s and women’s relative social and economic status. Employers and candidates alike associate men with higher pay than women. This is evident from the gender differences in aspirations that male and female candidates set for themselves, as well as in the offer behavior of those who disperse compensation. The influence of the social structure of gender relations is also evident in the responses that evaluators have to men’s and women’s attempts to negotiate for higher pay- with men’s attempts generally perceived as acceptable, particularly by men, and women’s perceived as inappropriate.



Women are more likely to be punished for self-promoting behavior than men. The world will not change overnight, therefore, women need to discover ways to overcome this disadvantage. Experts in the area suggest when women negotiate in these types of situations, emphasis should be placed on the dependency of both parties to the relationship (Kray & Thompson, 2005). It is suggested that when women enter a salary negotiation, they should focus on the benefit to others, such as spouses and children. By redirecting the focus to benefits to others, women may be able to achieve better outcomes.





6. REFERENCES


Brewer, G. (1998). The gender pay gap persists. Sales and Marketing Management,150 (12), 98.


Bowles, H.R., Babcock, L., & McGinn, K.L. (2005). Constraints and triggers: Situational mechanics of gender in negotiation. Journal of Personality and Social Pyschology, 89, 951-965.


DeCenzo, D.A. & Robbins, S.P. (2007). Fundamentals of Human Resource Management. John Wiley & Sons, Inc.


Daily, C.M. & D.R. Dalton (1999). Cracks in the glass ceiling? Directorship, 25(3), 4-6


Gerhart, B., & Rynes, S. (1991). Determinants and consequences of salary negotiations by male and female MBA graduates. Journal of Applied Psychology, 76, 256-262.


Halpern, J.J. and Parks, J.M. (1996), “Vive la difference: Differences between males and females in process and outcomes in a low-conflict negotiation”, International Journal of Conflict Management, Vol.7, pp. 45-70.


Jackson, S.E, Schuler, R.S., & Werner, S. (2009). Managing Human Resources,10e . South-Western CENGAGE Learning.


Lips, H.M. (2003). The gender pay gap : Concrete indicator of women’s progress toward inequality. Analysis of Social Issues & Public Policy, 3(1), 87-109.


Philpott, J. (2002). Bonuses widen pay inequality. People Management, 8(25), 7.


Powell, M. and Ansic, D. (1997), “Gender differences in risk behavior in financial decision making: an experimental analysis”, Journal of Economic Psychology, Vol. 18, pp. 605-28.


Robbins,S.P., & Judge,T.A. (2009). Organizational Behavior. Pearson Prentice Hall.


Stuhlmacher, A.F., Citera, M., & Willis, T. (2007). Gender Differences in Virtual Negotiation: Theory and Research. Sex Roles, 57, 329-339.


Tubbs, S.L., Ottenbreit, E., & Falk, S. (2008). Gender Bias in Automotive Negotiations. The Journal of American Academy of Business, Cambridge, 13, 182-187.

HRD – TRAINING NEEDS ANALYSIS

1.0.    Introduction

In a business, Human Resource is one of the discipline which drives business for competitiveness. To achieve this training is very important. Competent employees will not remain competent forever. Training Needs analysis is critical to developing relevant and effective education and training programs and marketable and useful products. These programs and products can be for use by your organization, or for external customers. By assessing target audience needs, we can determine a focus and direction for investments made in products or training, and extend the reach and impact of environmental programming. On the below will given a few definitions from the field of training and education of the term "needs analysis."

In order to assess the training needs, it is also necessary to derive the job contents and job descriptions for each category and cadre in respect of Employees working in the entire Department.

 1.1.    Definition of Training Needs AnalysisTraining Needs Analysis (TNA) is the process of identifying and assessing the training requirements of an organization (or individual). Other definitions are:-

• 
  
  All effective training begins with needs analysis. The training needs survey measure what skills employees have, what they need, and how to deliver the right training at the right time. – American Society of Training and Development

• 
  
  Needs analysis is an examination of the existing need for training within an organization. It is a gathering of data that enables you to make an informed estimate of the changes desired or demanded by those organizations.
  
  – Stuart Dalziel, Planning and Managing Training and Development

A needs assessment is a systematic investigation of an audience to identify aspects of individual knowledge, skill, interest, attitude and/or abilities relevant to a particular issue, organizational goal, or objective.

1.2.    What are the goals of a Training Needs Analysis?

The goal of a needs analysis is to design an effective program, product or service that address the group's 'needs' and 'wants'.

Many people consider only one solution (they want) and discuss it as a need, when in truth what they really need will not be addressed. Effective questioning can reveal the need behind the want. However, it is important to remember that the 'want' is often the best solution. Two things the most important to remember:

• 
  
  Needs are gaps – the space between what currently exists and what should exist.
• 
  
  Wants are solutions – a proposed means to filling the gap.
  

Examples of Wants I want to hire a budget analystI want to learn more about social marketingI want a tool to help me write metadata

Example of Needs       I need to do more accurate budget projections I need to increase the effectiveness of the educationsI need to accurately document my scientific data

  

1.3.    Objective of Training Needs Analysis

• 
  
  Identify existing degree of knowledge, skills, and the attitudinal characteristics surrounding a particular issue or topical area
  
• 
  
  Identify individuals or groups of individuals who most need additional skills training or access to information and technologies.
  
• 
  
  Identify motivations and conditions that contribute to an individual's degree of interest in an issue and ability to access or purchase the final product or training course.
  

2.0.    Why need Training Needs Analysis?

Training needs analysis (TNA) can be seen as a health check on the skills, talent and capabilities of the organization. It is the systematic gathering of data to find out where there are gaps in the existing skills, knowledge and attitudes of employees. It involves collecting data about existing employees' capabilities and the organizational demands for skills and the analysis of the implications for changes in capability of new and changed roles. It should always flow from the business strategy and its aim is the production of a plan allowing the organization to ensure there is sufficient capability to sustain business performance.

Careful training needs analysis is very important because:

• 
  
  Organizational performance depends on the right quality and quantity of human capital
• 
  
  Learning opportunities enables staff to achieve personal and career goals and increase employee engagement.
• 
  
  Well planned training is an effective retention strategy.
• 
  
  If an initial assessment is made based on organizational needs and strategy, then it is likely that cost effective learning provision will result.

Training Needs Analysis will need to answer:-

• 
  
  Why do people need the training
• 
  
  What skills need imparting
• 
  
  Who needs the training
• 
  
  Where may the training be conducted
• 
  
  When will they need the new skills
• 
  
  How many the new skills be imparted

Methods Identifying Training Needs Analysis

• 
  
  Different background of employees to be trained
• 
  
  Employees should be from : new hires or existing employees

Conducting a Training Needs Analysis 

• 
  
  In House Trainer / Consultant collect information based on 3 issues:-
  a) Performance problem
  b) Anticipated introduction of new systems, task and technology
• 
  
  Desired by organization to benefit from a perceived opportunity
• 
  
  Needs analysis reveals well targeted training areas
• 
  
  Conducting TNA must get a clear of the problem
• 
  
  When properly done, needs analysis is a wise investment
• 
  
  Well performed analysis is the solutions of greatest need
• 
  
  Failure cause costly mistake.
  
   

3.0.    Training Needs Analysis: Advantages & Disadvantages

The table below summarized the key advantages and disadvantages of major methods of assessing training and performance needs. The methods help to give a balanced perspective and offset the disadvantages of some methods.

Methods	Advantages	Disadvantages
Organizational Documents	Provide relevant, quantifiable data Fast Inexpensive May built management involvement	Don't build employee involvement Not necessarily focused on HRD May not identify causes May not provide visibility
Questionnaires & Surveys	Reach many people in short time Build involvement Relatively inexpensive Yield relevant, quantifiable data that are easy to summarize Anonymity may encourage honesty	Require time and skill to develop Low response rates or inaccurate responses No opportunity to clarify May restrict freedom of response May lead to unrealistic expectations
Group interviews (Focus groups)	Build involvement and support Provide relevant data Provide visibility May elicit key topics not expected On the spot sharing & synthesis of different views	Moderately time-consuming (but less so than individual interviews) Moderately expensive Difficult to conduct May be difficult to analyze and quantify data
Individual Interviews	Build involvement and support Allow for clarification Provide relevant data Easier to conduct than group interviews May uncover information that wouldn't be brought up in a group	Expensive in terms of time and travel costs Require interviewing skills May be difficult to analyze and quantify results May make interviewees self-conscious
Advisory Committees	Build management involvement and sponsorship Provide visibility Inexpensive Allows synthesis of opinions of key decision makers Can help identify resources	Time consuming and difficult to manage logistically Fails to build lower level employee involvement Poor source of quantifiable data May lead to "groupthink" or turf wars
Observation of Work Situations	Builds employee involvement Provides excellent information when coaching an individual Builds your credibility Generates relevant, quantifiable data May provide excellent stories	Requires a skilled observer Does not involve management Time consuming May change performance or be perceived as spying May be logistically difficult
Benchmarking & Independent Research	Learn from industry leaders and competitors Can build your credibility Availability of free data on internet Avoid rediscovering what is known	Does not build involvement May not be directly relevant Data from different organizations may be misleading Requires significant analysis

Source: Adapted from Managing a Small HRD Department, by Carol P. McCoy. Falmouth, ME @ McCoy Training and Development Resources, 1993, p 23.

4.0.    About this Training Needs Analysis? 

The example given is refers to the position of Payroll Assistant. This is based on individual level. After appraisal and supervision meetings allow individual to reflect on their own learning needs in relation to their work objective. What additional skills and learning that they need to improve and what they do? It is important to take for people's career. However, there is also a need to be realistic about what organization can offer by way of development opportunities and not to raise expectation too high. Assessment tools can be helpful in getting a more picture of individual performance and the impact that people are making at different levels within the organization. Identifying learning needs at individual level is not just about what needs to be learnt, it is also about how best to do it. Organization must find how many people have enjoyed and benefit from training in the past. The outcome of training needs analysis at an individual level should be a Personal Development Plan which it is be related to their work objectives.

5.0.    Training Program

As a result of the training needs analysis, training will be provided to close the skill gap. This may include:-

• 
  
  payroll courses delivered by the HRD
• 
  
  training programs delivered by external providers for specific skills or qualification requirements
• 
  
  task specific training delivered

Internal training is delivered on the yearly schedule. Other training including specific training is delivered on a needs basis, by any of identification, but not limits e.g. induction, transfer of employees, change of work process, technology or substances. Training Programs offered internally at the HRD are documented in HR Training courses.

Possible gap areas will be found between:

• 
  
  An individual's perception of skill level and her or his actual skill level.
• 
  
  Management's perception of resources required to succeed and employees' actual needs.
• 
  
  Customer expectations and internally developed objectives.

After training needs analysis done, skills can divert into two categories, technical and interpersonal. Most training activities seek to modify one or more of these skills.

Technical: Most training is directed upgrading and improving an employee's technical skills.

Interpersonal: Almost all employees belong to a work unit. To some degree, their work performance depends on their ability to effectively interact with their co-workers and their boss. Some employees have excellent interpersonal skills. But others require training to improve theirs.

5.1.    Training Methods

Most training takes place on the job. This can be attributed to the simplicity of such methods and their usually lower cost. However, on-the-job training can disrupt the workplace and result in an increase in errors as learning proceeds. Also, some skill training is too complex to learn on the job. In such cases, it should take place outside the work setting.

On-the Job Training 

Popular on-the-job training methods include job rotation and understudy assignments. Job rotation involves lateral transfers that enable employees to work at different jobs. Both job rotation and understudy assignments apply to the learning of technical skills. Interpersonal and problem-solving skills are acquired more effectively by training that takes place off the job.

Off-the-Job Training

There is a number of off-the-Job training methods that managers may want to make available to employees. The more popular are classroom lectures, films, and simulation exercises. Classroom lectures are well suited for conveying specific information. They can be used effectively for developing technical and problem-solving skills. Films can also be used to explicitly demonstrate technical skills. Interpersonal and problem-solving skills may be best learned through simulation exercises. However, complex computer models, such as those used by airlines in the training of pilots, are another kind of simulation exercise. Training and development can sustain or increase its employees' current productivity, while, at the same time, prepare employees for a changing world.

5.2.    Training Process

The below is the training process for Training Needs Analysis. The TNA process is referring for the post of Payroll Assistant in their learning and development. The process below is identifying training requirements to developing organization business objectives using the individual level.

6.0.    Determine the Job Description of the employee

JOB DESCRIPTION

This form is used to obtain information about the duties and requirements of your job. Complete the form in your own words.

SECTION A : JOB IDENTIFICATION
Name of Job Holder	Norhayati binti Abdul Wahab
Job Title ( Designation)	Payroll Assistant
Department / Section	Human Resource Department / Payroll Section
Report To ( Name of Job Title )	En. Mohd Fazil bin Ghani Senior Executive, Payroll Section
Location	Head Quarters, Kuala Lumpur
No of staff supervised	Four (4)
SECTION B : JOB SUMMARY Briefly describe the main purpose of your job. Please provide one or two sentences starting with an action verb, followed by the aim of the position that identifies the result of the position.
Example Performs a variety of office support and/or secretarial duties for a specified unit/department, such as composing and word processing a variety of standard documents and correspondence, relaying and resolving routine telephone and/or walk-up inquiries, scheduling calendar items and meetings, making travel arrangements, processing forms, performing data entry, and establishing and maintaining records. Edits and proofreads documents to ensure accuracy. May perform duties involving simple mathematical calculations.
To prepare all aspects of data entries payroll process into the Paywin, Orisoft System. To prepare and ensure the accuracy of the monthly relevant payroll report and to rectify and difference / variance. To prepare all data for monthly overtime, allowance, deductions and adjustments. To prepare instruction for payment memo every end-month, diskette and instruction letter to bank for salary payment. To prepare statutory report and to ensure payments of statutory contributions are compiles within the stipulated deadline. To administer staff information in Human Resource Information System To prepare the employment contract, termination, promotion, increment, transfer letter, warning, etc. To attend to all employees' queries pertaining to HR related. To handle private and confidential matters and assist on HR and admin works as when required.

SECTION C : MAJOR DUTIES / RESPONSIBILITIES & PERFORMANCE STANDARD List major duties and responsibilities of your job. Each statement should be clear description of the task and should start with a verb
MAJOR DUTIES / REPONSIBILITIES	FREQUENCY (Daily, Weekly, Monthly, Quarterly, Ad-hoc)
E.g.; Type memo and letters from drafts	Daily
1. Process monthly payroll, key in overtime, allowance, deductions and any adjustment.	Monthly
2. Prepare statutory reports for governments' bodies such as EPF, SOCSO, Income Tax, HRDF and Zakat.	Monthly
3. To updated personal file into HRIS and filing to personal file	Weekly
4. To prepare payment memo every end-months	Monthly
5. To prepare diskette and instruction letter to bank for salary payment.	Monthly
6. Prepare the employment contract, termination, transfer, increment, warning, etc.	Daily

SECTION D : JOB REQUIREMENTS List /Select the requirements of qualifications, skill and qualities necessary to perform your job properly.
Preferred Education	( ) SPM ( ) STPM ( X ) DIPLOMA ( ) ADVANCE DIPLOMA ( ) BACHELOR DEGREE ( ) MASTER ( ) PHD
Preferred Course/ Discipline	Payroll Human Resource Information Systems (HRIS) Employment Act
Related Course/ Discipline	Interpersonal communication skill Computer Skills
Preferred Experience	( ) NONE ( ) LESS THAN 1 YEAR ( X ) 1 – 2 YEARS ( ) 3 – 5 YEARS ( ) 5 – 7 YEARS ( ) 7 -10 YEARS ( ) MORE THAN 10 YEARS
Language Abilities	( X ) ENGLISH ( X ) BAHASA ( ) OTHERS ...................................
Preferred Age Range	( ) NONE ( ) 18 - 21 ( ) 21 – 25 YEARS ( X ) 25 – 30 YEARS ( ) 25 – 30 YEARS ( ) 7 -10 YEARS ( ) MORE THAN 10 YEARS
Knowledge, Skills, Abilities	Payroll administration experience in a similar sized organization. Excellent interpersonal skills Strong commitment to employees and also flexibility Minimum 2-3 years practical payroll experience Proficient to at least an intermediate level in a range of software packages (including work, excel, outlook) Experiences with HRIS Human Resource experience

6.2.    Determine the Job Specification of the employee

JOB SPECIFICATION

(Classified Employees)

Job Title : Payroll Assistant	Job Code No: 0660
Salary Grade : JE14	Total Point: ________

FACTOR	DEGREE	POINTS
1. Knowledge & skills Ability & knowledge to perform complex, difficult task	4
2. Effort Mental & visual effort Continuous mental / visual effort for a sustained period Physical Effort Light physical effort or significant manual	3 2
3. Responsibility for Cost Control Damage or waste is possible but considerable attention and care can prevent loss.	3
4. Working condition Frequent exposure to adverse stimulation which can result in some disagreeable working condition.	2
5. Responsibility for external and internal relations considerable external and /or internal contacts to carry out responsibilities.	3

6.3.    Fill in the competency Gap & Training Needs Analysis Form

COMPETENCY GAP & TRAINING NEEDS ANALYSIS

Name        :    Norhayati binti Abdul Wahab            Staff No.:    HR04429

Department /    :    HRD / Payroll Section                Position    :    Payroll Assistant

Section

Important Instructions:

1. Please complete the form by writing in ball point or by typing

2. HOD/HOS must conduct an interview with the staff in order to fill in the respective section

3. All completed and duly signed competency gap & training needs analysis forms to be submitted to HR within the

stipulated deadline.

The following are guidance to completing the form:-

Section 1 - Competency Gap Analysis

(i) Competencies will consist of:-

    Competencies will consist of:-

    a. organizational competencies

    b. generic competencies (management)

    c. Individual competencies (personal development)

    d. specific job competencies (technical)

(ii) HOD/HOS must conduct an interview with the employee in order to rank the level of importance of the above mentioned competencies and to fill in the required and current level of competencies based on the scale given.

(iii) HOD/HOS must identify the competencies gap for the purpose of selecting which are the most appropriate training strategies should be given

Section 2 - Competency Development Strategy Selection Matrix

There are four (4) strategies for training based on the competency gap which is:-

a. Self learning

b. Working skills (on the job training)

c. Internal training

d. External training

Section 3 – Proposal for Training Program

HOD/HOS must identify which type of training should be given to the staff based on Section 2

SECTION 1 – COMPETENCY GAP

Level of importance scale:-

Required level of competency scale:-

COMPETENCIES	LEVEL OF IMPORTANCE	REQUIRED LEVEL OF COMPETENCIES (a)	CURRENT LEVEL OF COMPETENCIES FORM THE SCALE OF (0-5) (b)	GAP (a – b)
A. Organizational Competencies 1.Understanding company's Mission and Vision 2. Understanding the business concept and process
B. Generic Competency (Management) 1. Filing and Record Keeping 2. Report Writing 3. Communication Skills 4. Problem solving skills 5. Presentation skills 6. Leadership skills 7. Planning and organizing skills
C. Individual Competencies (Personal Development) 1. Time management 2. Personal development skills 3. Positive work behavior 4. Integrity & discipline
D. Specific Job Competencies (Technical) a. Payroll system b. Financial competencies for HR practitioners c. Clerical & administrative skills d. Effective Business Writing Skills e. Employment Act f. Industrial Relation Act

SECTION 2 – COMPETENCY DEVELOPMENT STRATEGY SELECTION MATRIX 

CG LOI	0	1	2	3	4	5
1	No action required	Self learning
2	No action required	Self learning	Self learning + Working skills (OJT) + Internal Training
3	No action required	Self learning + Working skills (OJT) + Internal Training	Self learning + Working skills + External Training	Self learning + Working skills + External Training
4	No action required	Self learning + Working skills (OJT) + Internal Training	Self learning + Working skills + External Training	Self learning + Working skills + External Training	Self learning + Working skills + External Training
5	No action required	Self learning + Working skills (OJT) + Internal Training	Self learning + Working skills + External Training	Self learning + Working skills + External Training	Self learning + Working skills + External Training	Self learning + Working skills + External Training

Prepared By:	Approved By:	Validate By:
Name: ………………………………………… Position: ……………………………………. Date: ………………………………………….	Name: ………………………………………… Position: ……………………………………. Date: ………………………………………….	Name: ………………………………………… Position: ……………………………………. Date: ………………………………………….

  

SECTION 3 – PROPOSAL FOR TRAINING PROGRAM

Training Program	Objective/Competencies to be Covered	Approach (Internal/External)	Duration Days/Hours	Total Cost (RM)
1. Payroll System (ORISOFT- Paywin & HRwin) 2. Understanding of wages / payroll administration & practices 3. Administrative, clerical & Documents Control skills training 4. Effective business writing skills   5. The employment Act 1955 6. Dynamics of Effective Peoply 7. Effective time management 8. Communication and Interpersonal skills	-To support and process of the monthly payroll for over 300 staff. -To maintain accurate pay records and reports -To respond to all payrolls issues/questions from employees. -Understand payroll administration & control -Understand the court on past cases & avoiding pitfalls. -Learn the application within various Laws & Acts. -Learn practical applications on the payment/computation of rates. -Effective administration & clerical job in terms of skills & personal qualities, administrative and clerical staff. -Effective document & record control -To communicate effectively with supervisor , colleagues and clients Make them learn how to organize and plan their work flow. -Identify the purpose of writing -Understand the importance of good writing habits -Analyze the audience & suiting it to their reading needs -Be aware of individual strengths and weakness in writing -Understanding the legal meaning of all the important terms used in these Acts -Understand the meaning of express and implied terms in a contract of service -Understand the meaning of wages, overtime, etc -Know how to avoid breaching the laws governing employment -Better understand self and other. -Understand their initial perceptions on-life, work, business, interactions etc -see how perceptions affect their identity behavior and success -Shift their paradigm towards success -Understand the importance of time management -Assess their time usage and differentiate between urgent and important work -Identify time wasters and plan how to overcome them -Delegate effectively without affecting customer satisfaction -Improve their ability in communicating with others -Improve relationships with better communications -Be more assertive in their interpersonal relationships -Handle conflict creatively	External External External Internal   External Internal Internal Internal	2 – 3 days 2 days 2 days 2 days 2 days 1 day 1 day 1 ½ days	1000-1500 per day. 990 800 - 800 - - -

  

6.4.    TRAINING NEEDS ANALYSIS – HIGH / LOW MATRIX

  

High Importance High NEED FOR TRAINING Payroll System Financial competencies for HR practitioners Effective Business Writing Skills	High Importance Low NEED FOR TRAINING Business concept & Process Employment Act Industrial Relations Personal development skills
Leadership Skills Planning & Organizational Skills Report Writing Low Importance High NEED FOR TRAINING	Company Mission & Vision Clerical & Administration Skills Filing & Record Keeping Problem solving skills Low Importance Low NEED FOR TRAINING

6.5.    TRAINING NEEDS ANALYSIS (Individual Level)

Name	Norhayati binti Abdul Wahab
Department / Section	HR / Payroll

The list of training courses is a guideline for HOD/HOS to recommend training program.

Management Training
Conflict Management		Basic Management Training	X
Time & Stress Management	X	Advance Management Training
Creative Thinking & Problem Solving		Effective Performance Appraisals	X
Thinking Outside The Box		Essential Managerial Skills
Effective Supervisory Skills	X	Leadership & Human Relations Skills
Strategic Leadership		Human Resource Management for Managers
Managing & Supervising People		Business Skills for Managers
Project Management		Effective Middle Management	X
Advance Project Management		Emotional Intelligence
Managerial Development Programme		Business Skills for Managers
Executive Development Programme		Leading & Managing Change
Management By Objective	X	Managing The HR Department Efficiently	X

Technical Training
Payroll System	X	HRIS	X
MS Office Application	X	Effective Telephone Skills in Customer Service
Conversational English		Developing Managerial Skills
Occupational Safety & Health Act 1994		Industrial Relation Act	X
Clerical & Administrative Skills	X	Employment Act	X
Financial Competencies for HR Practitioners	X	Company Tax
5S For House Keeping		Financial Accounting & Cash Flow Mgmt
Effective Business Writing Skills	X	Problem Solving
Clerical Development Programme		Negotiations Skills

Motivation / Personal Development Training
Sikap Kerja Positif		Kerja Berpasukan & Budaya Kerja Cemerlang	X
Teambuilding & Leadership		Time & Stress Management	X
Public Speaking	X	Creative Thinking & Problem Solving
Business English	X	Team Building & Leadership
Effective Time Management		Improving Employee Performance	X
Managing & Supervisory People		Coaching & Counseling Skills

  

6.6.    Flowchart: Assessing Training options for a workplace competency

6.7. SAMPLE

HR TRAINING REGISTER

Department / Section : Norhayati binti Abdul Wahab

Supervisor / Manager: En. Mohd Fazil bin Ghani

Date	Description of Training Provided	Name of person trained	Trainee Signature	Assessment as competent By:	Assessor Signature
15.01.10	Payroll System – ORISOFT (Paywin & HRwin)

6.8. SAMPLE

TRAINING NEEDS IDENTIFICATION SUMMARY

Dept            : X Department

Sec            : X Section

No of staff        : 12

No of respondent        : 7

No.	Item	Rating (%)
		Compulsory	Important	Not Important
	Organizational
1	Company's Mission and Vision	30	70
2	Company's concept and process	40	50	10
	Management
1	Filling and Record Keeping
2	Report Writing
3	Communication skills
4	Problem Solving skills
5	Presentation Skills
6	Leadership skills
7	Planning and organizing skills
	Individual
1	Time management
2	Personal development skills
3	Positive work behavior
4	Integrity & discipline
	Technical Awareness
1
2
3
4
5
	Recommendation

7.0.    Conclusion

 In conclusion, if employees are to remain productive, career development and training programs need to be available that can support an employee's task and emotional needs at each stage. Training needs analysis is the initial step in a cyclical process which contributes to the overall training and education strategy of staff in an organization or a professional group. The cycle commences with a systematic consultation to identify the learning needs of the population considered followed by course planning delivery and evaluation.